• Interesting twinklies on 50yo material

    From J. P. Gilliver@G6JPG@255soft.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 00:33:42 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    (OK, 49yo. But still - I _think_ I saw it when originally broadcast!)

    Just been watching The Birth of Television (<https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m002q94w/the-birth-of-television>), which apparently was first broadcast 1976-11-1 21-25. My first thought
    was that it was amazing quality for nearly 50yo 576i material; then I
    noticed some twinklies - quite a few of them at fixed points on the
    screen. Very noticeable when the picture is almost black, as it is not
    far in (simulated living/viewing-room scenes).

    Presumably due to head/tape damage; someone can probably tell what sort
    of machine it has been archived on from the pattern.

    They seem to disappear about 1'27 in (and I don't think recur).

    Still enjoyed seeing it again. (And the one on JLB that preceded it [on
    BBC4 this, well Tuesday, evening].)
    --
    J. P. Gilliver. UMRA: 1960/<1985 MB++G()ALIS-Ch++(p)Ar++T+H+Sh0!:`)DNAf

    And on the question of authorship, I subscribe to the view that the
    plays were not in fact written by Shakespeare but by someone of the
    same name. - Hugh Bonneville (RT 2014/10/11-17)

    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.net to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 01:49:13 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 00:33, J. P. Gilliver wrote:
    (OK, 49yo. But still - I _think_ I saw it when originally broadcast!)

    Just been watching The Birth of Television (<https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m002q94w/the-birth-of-television>), which apparently was first broadcast 1976-11-1 21-25. My first thought
    was that it was amazing quality for nearly 50yo 576i material; then I
    noticed some twinklies - quite a few of them at fixed points on the
    screen. Very noticeable when the picture is almost black, as it is not
    far in (simulated living/viewing-room scenes).

    Presumably due to head/tape damage; someone can probably tell what sort
    of machine it has been archived on from the pattern.

    They seem to disappear about 1'27 in (and I don't think recur).

    Still enjoyed seeing it again. (And the one on JLB that preceded it [on
    BBC4 this, well Tuesday, evening].)

    I've recorded them to watch when I get a Round Tuit. All we need now is
    Jack Rosenthal's excellent play "Fools on the Hill" about the early days
    of TV. (*)

    Maybe the twinklies (I can see them too) are something that some media
    studies Herbert has added to show that this is "from the archive" ;-) At
    least it wasn't fake film dirt on something that's come from video
    camera and videotape. I've seen that before now. The biggest giveaway is
    that it's a pattern that repeats - you see the same hair mark every n
    seconds, regular as clockwork ;-)


    (*) I liked the seat-of-the-pants stuff:

    [a TV performer in a long ballgown has just come out of the studio]
    Helen McKay: My hem - it's all wet. Is there water on the floor?

    Jasmine Bligh: There had better not be. There's ten thousand volts of electricity running through...

    Stage Manager: Oh hell! Excuse the language, ladies. It's the cyanide
    again. No! Don't touch it! The cameraman's spilled his ruddy fixing
    fluid again. Extinguishers! As fast as you can!
    [two men spray the performer's dress with water]
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Andy Burns@usenet@andyburns.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 08:55:08 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    NY wrote:

    Maybe the twinklies (I can see them too) are something that some media studies Herbert has added

    They mostly seemed to appear in pairs (neighbouring odd or even
    scanlines) with a "good" scanline in-between them.

    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Mark Carver@mark@invalid.com to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 11:16:26 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 00:33, J. P. Gilliver wrote:
    (OK, 49yo. But still - I _think_ I saw it when originally broadcast!)

    Just been watching The Birth of Television (<https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m002q94w/the-birth-of-television>), which apparently was first broadcast 1976-11-1 21-25. My first thought
    was that it was amazing quality for nearly 50yo 576i material; then I
    noticed some twinklies - quite a few of them at fixed points on the
    screen. Very noticeable when the picture is almost black, as it is not
    far in (simulated living/viewing-room scenes).

    Presumably due to head/tape damage; someone can probably tell what sort
    of machine it has been archived on from the pattern.

    They are Quadruplex VT 'Stab Dots'. Basically, interruptions in the off
    tape RF at the head switch points. Remember Quadruplex used four heads
    across the field (the clue is in the name) .

    Am I really the only remaining member of this Usenet group, to know that !?
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Andy Burns@usenet@andyburns.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 12:03:07 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    Mark Carver wrote:

    They are Quadruplex VT 'Stab Dots'. Basically, interruptions in the off
    tape RF at the head switch points. Remember Quadruplex used four heads across the field (the clue is in the name) .

    Am I really the only remaining member of this Usenet group, to know that !?

    <https://www.youtube.com/shorts/a_m1Iqs3W3s>
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Mark Carver@mark@invalid.com to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 12:20:59 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 12:03, Andy Burns wrote:
    Mark Carver wrote:

    They are Quadruplex VT 'Stab Dots'. Basically, interruptions in the
    off tape RF at the head switch points. Remember Quadruplex used four
    heads across the field (the clue is in the name) .

    Am I really the only remaining member of this Usenet group, to know
    that !?

    <https://www.youtube.com/shorts/a_m1Iqs3W3s>

    Interesting. The monitor on the left looks to be showing the signal,
    before a TBC has cleaned and 'firmed' it all up
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From J. P. Gilliver@G6JPG@255soft.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 12:56:46 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 2026/1/21 1:49:13, NY wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 00:33, J. P. Gilliver wrote:
    (OK, 49yo. But still - I _think_ I saw it when originally broadcast!)

    Just been watching The Birth of Television
    (<https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m002q94w/the-birth-of-television>), []
    I've recorded them to watch when I get a Round Tuit. All we need now is
    Jack Rosenthal's excellent play "Fools on the Hill" about the early days
    of TV. (*)

    Maybe the twinklies (I can see them too) are something that some media > studies Herbert has added to show that this is "from the archive" ;-) At
    I don't think so - they seemed to only be there for the first 87
    seconds, and stop suddenly.
    least it wasn't fake film dirt on something that's come from video
    camera and videotape. I've seen that before now. The biggest giveaway is that it's a pattern that repeats - you see the same hair mark every n seconds, regular as clockwork ;-)

    Indeed.
    No, I think this was proper archive material (seems odd to think of 1976
    as archive, but then I'm getting old!), broadcast _properly_ (4:3
    material broadcast with the 4:3 flag [so I had to turn my subtitles
    off]); I think it's just genuine damage/recording error.

    (*) I liked the seat-of-the-pants stuff:

    [a TV performer in a long ballgown has just come out of the studio]
    Helen McKay: My hem - it's all wet. Is there water on the floor?

    Jasmine Bligh: There had better not be. There's ten thousand volts of electricity running through...

    Stage Manager: Oh hell! Excuse the language, ladies. It's the cyanide
    again. No! Don't touch it! The cameraman's spilled his ruddy fixing
    fluid again. Extinguishers! As fast as you can!
    [two men spray the performer's dress with water]
    :-) (You wouldn't think TV announcer would be a hazardous profession!)
    --
    J. P. Gilliver. UMRA: 1960/<1985 MB++G()ALIS-Ch++(p)Ar++T+H+Sh0!:`)DNAf
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From J. P. Gilliver@G6JPG@255soft.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 13:02:39 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 2026/1/21 11:16:26, Mark Carver wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 00:33, J. P. Gilliver wrote:
    (OK, 49yo. But still - I _think_ I saw it when originally broadcast!)

    Just been watching The Birth of Television
    (<https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m002q94w/the-birth-of-television>), []
    They are Quadruplex VT 'Stab Dots'. Basically, interruptions in the off
    tape RF at the head switch points. Remember Quadruplex used four heads > across the field (the clue is in the name) .

    Am I really the only remaining member of this Usenet group, to know that !?
    I knew there'd be someone here who knew! You're probably not the _only_.
    I was a little surprised Quadruplex was still in use in 1976.
    They stop, not at a scene change; do you think someone noticed and
    tweaked something?
    --
    J. P. Gilliver. UMRA: 1960/<1985 MB++G()ALIS-Ch++(p)Ar++T+H+Sh0!:`)DNAf
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Mark Carver@mark@invalid.com to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 13:23:02 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 13:02, J. P. Gilliver wrote:

    I was a little surprised Quadruplex was still in use in 1976.

    It was the only broadcast quality tape format in 1976, the 1 inch tape C
    and B formats emerged (in the market place at least) in the late 70s.

    However, UK broadcasters carried on with 'Quad' well into the 80s, particularly for material and programmes that hadn't been transferred to
    1 inch. Which was a lot


    They stop, not at a scene change; do you think someone noticed and
    tweaked something?

    Almost certainly !

    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Roderick Stewart@rjfs@escapetime.myzen.co.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 14:06:16 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On Wed, 21 Jan 2026 13:23:02 +0000, Mark Carver <mark@invalid.com>
    wrote:

    I was a little surprised Quadruplex was still in use in 1976.

    It was the only broadcast quality tape format in 1976, the 1 inch tape C
    and B formats emerged (in the market place at least) in the late 70s.

    However, UK broadcasters carried on with 'Quad' well into the 80s, >particularly for material and programmes that hadn't been transferred to
    1 inch. Which was a lot

    I read somewhere that the total playing time of all the 2" and 1"
    existing tape material is greater than the total head life of all the
    tape heads in existence, and nobody's making new ones.

    And even if they were, there's a dwindling number of people who would
    know how to replace them and line up the machines.

    Which means that a lot of stored videotape material will never be
    played again, and if we want to make decisions about what's worth
    transcribing this will depend on recordings being accurately
    documented and described because we would otherwise have to play them
    to find out.

    Rod.
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.net to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 14:58:20 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 11:16, Mark Carver wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 00:33, J. P. Gilliver wrote:
    (OK, 49yo. But still - I _think_ I saw it when originally broadcast!)

    Just been watching The Birth of Television
    (<https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m002q94w/the-birth-of-
    television>),
    which apparently was first broadcast 1976-11-1 21-25. My first thought
    was that it was amazing quality for nearly 50yo 576i material; then I
    noticed some twinklies - quite a few of them at fixed points on the
    screen. Very noticeable when the picture is almost black, as it is not
    far in (simulated living/viewing-room scenes).

    Presumably due to head/tape damage; someone can probably tell what sort
    of machine it has been archived on from the pattern.

    They are Quadruplex VT 'Stab Dots'. Basically, interruptions in the off
    tape RF at the head switch points. Remember Quadruplex used four heads across the field (the clue is in the name) .

    Am I really the only remaining member of this Usenet group, to know that !?

    So did head-switching of Quad occur *within* a line, rather than in the line-flyback period between lines? Or is it a delayed effect which is manifested n microseconds after head switching?
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.net to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 15:08:51 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 13:23, Mark Carver wrote:
    However, UK broadcasters carried on with 'Quad' well into the 80s, particularly for material and programmes that hadn't been transferred to
    1 inch. Which was a lot
    I believe it was used in sports broadcasting long after 1" helical
    formats had taken over in all other areas, because Quad tape can be cut-and-splice edited without needing to be selectively dubbed, which
    makes it a *lot* quicker to compile a highlights-of-the-match tape.

    I read somewhere that all cut-and-splice tapes were marked very
    prominently "Not to be bulk-erased" because doing so would erase the electronic "sprocket holes" on the control track so there would be a
    risk of the spinning heads colliding with a splice point and clogging
    the head with oxide, whereas the existing control pulses would sync the
    heads so the splice was always between head-passes. And if you started
    the tape at the beginning and recorded something over the top, the VTR
    would still use the existing control pulses and not record new ones in different places.

    Is videotape ever used in TV production these days? Or is everything
    recorded digitally? Is computer-type tape used for archiving digital recordings, or are hard drives (or optical discs similar to DVDs) used
    as the archive medium?
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.net to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 15:12:25 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 14:06, Roderick Stewart wrote:
    I read somewhere that the total playing time of all the 2" and 1"
    existing tape material is greater than the total head life of all the
    tape heads in existence, and nobody's making new ones.

    And even if they were, there's a dwindling number of people who would
    know how to replace them and line up the machines.

    Which means that a lot of stored videotape material will never be
    played again, and if we want to make decisions about what's worth transcribing this will depend on recordings being accurately
    documented and described because we would otherwise have to play them
    to find out.

    Do worn-out heads actually damage the tape? Would it be feasible to use time-expired heads to play recordings simply to log their contents,
    accepting that there may be playback flaws, in order to decide which
    tapes to digitise using the precious stock of new heads?
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Mark Carver@mark@invalid.com to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 16:24:07 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 15:08, NY wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 13:23, Mark Carver wrote:
    However, UK broadcasters carried on with 'Quad' well into the 80s,
    particularly for material and programmes that hadn't been transferred
    to 1 inch. Which was a lot
    I believe it was used in sports broadcasting long after 1" helical
    formats had taken over in all other areas, because Quad tape can be cut- and-splice edited without needing to be selectively dubbed, which makes
    it a *lot* quicker to compile a highlights-of-the-match tape.

    This is true


    I read somewhere that all cut-and-splice tapes were marked very
    prominently "Not to be bulk-erased" because doing so would erase the electronic "sprocket holes" on the control track so there would be a
    risk of the spinning heads colliding with a splice point and clogging
    the head with oxide, whereas the existing control pulses would sync the heads so the splice was always between head-passes. And if you started
    the tape at the beginning and recorded something over the top, the VTR
    would still use the existing control pulses and not record new ones in different places.

    I don't think so. A mechanical splice in a tape was the equivalent of
    hitting the heads with a hammer when they rode over it, control track or
    not. Playing physically edited tapes would shorten the head life. It was
    (as ever) a cost/benefit thing, and was accepted that the operational advantages of physical editing was worth the cost of replacing the heads.

    It was hairy, and stressful stuff anyway, required both engineering
    skill, and editorial skill and responsibility. Some of the 1970/80s era
    VT editors at LWT, (where much of ITV Sport was produced at) were highly
    paid, more than the top brass.


    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Mark Carver@mark@invalid.com to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 16:31:32 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 14:58, NY wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 11:16, Mark Carver wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 00:33, J. P. Gilliver wrote:
    (OK, 49yo. But still - I _think_ I saw it when originally broadcast!)

    Just been watching The Birth of Television
    (<https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m002q94w/the-birth-of-
    television>),
    which apparently was first broadcast 1976-11-1 21-25. My first thought
    was that it was amazing quality for nearly 50yo 576i material; then I
    noticed some twinklies - quite a few of them at fixed points on the
    screen. Very noticeable when the picture is almost black, as it is not
    far in (simulated living/viewing-room scenes).

    Presumably due to head/tape damage; someone can probably tell what sort
    of machine it has been archived on from the pattern.

    They are Quadruplex VT 'Stab Dots'. Basically, interruptions in the
    off tape RF at the head switch points. Remember Quadruplex used four
    heads across the field (the clue is in the name) .

    Am I really the only remaining member of this Usenet group, to know
    that !?

    So did head-switching of Quad occur *within* a line, rather than in the line-flyback period between lines? Or is it a delayed effect which is manifested n microseconds after head switching?

    I think Quad (and the other helical scan VT formats) were largely line
    rate agnostic, so I don't think the head switch was necessarily during horizontal blanking ?

    On saturated, flat field chroma, notably a big area of uniform coloured background, you would sometimes see 'head banding' where one or more
    heads was not equalised properly (or the signal had not been uniformly recorded by all four heads)
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From J. P. Gilliver@G6JPG@255soft.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Wed Jan 21 18:10:12 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 2026/1/21 16:31:32, Mark Carver wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 14:58, NY wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 11:16, Mark Carver wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 00:33, J. P. Gilliver wrote:
    (OK, 49yo. But still - I _think_ I saw it when originally broadcast!)

    Just been watching The Birth of Television
    (<https://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/m002q94w/the-birth-of-
    television>),
    []

    They are Quadruplex VT 'Stab Dots'. Basically, interruptions in the
    off tape RF at the head switch points. Remember Quadruplex used four
    heads across the field (the clue is in the name) .

    []

    So did head-switching of Quad occur *within* a line, rather than in the
    line-flyback period between lines? Or is it a delayed effect which is
    manifested n microseconds after head switching?

    Certainly the dots in the first 87 seconds of the above material are
    well within the picture area (and fairly static in position, though I
    think not 100% so).

    I think Quad (and the other helical scan VT formats) were largely line
    rate agnostic, so I don't think the head switch was necessarily during horizontal blanking ?

    So could have been used for 405? Was it ever?


    On saturated, flat field chroma, notably a big area of uniform coloured background, you would sometimes see 'head banding' where one or more
    heads was not equalised properly (or the signal had not been uniformly recorded by all four heads)

    I'm sure you're right that that effect was visible, but the FM ... oh, I
    see, you mean there was a _time_ discrepancy between heads.
    --
    J. P. Gilliver. UMRA: 1960/<1985 MB++G()ALIS-Ch++(p)Ar++T+H+Sh0!:`)DNAf

    Madness takes its toll. Please have exact change
    [via Penny Mayes (mayes@pmail.net)]
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.net to uk.tech.broadcast on Thu Jan 22 01:07:44 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 16:24, Mark Carver wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 15:08, NY wrote:
    I read somewhere that all cut-and-splice tapes were marked very
    prominently "Not to be bulk-erased" because doing so would erase the
    electronic "sprocket holes" on the control track so there would be a
    risk of the spinning heads colliding with a splice point and clogging
    the head with oxide, whereas the existing control pulses would sync
    the heads so the splice was always between head-passes. And if you
    started the tape at the beginning and recorded something over the top,
    the VTR would still use the existing control pulses and not record new
    ones in different places.

    I don't think so. A mechanical splice in a tape was the equivalent of hitting the heads with a hammer when they rode over it, control track or not. Playing physically edited tapes would shorten the head life. It was
    (as ever) a cost/benefit thing, and was accepted that the operational advantages of physical editing was worth the cost of replacing the heads.

    Seems I've been wrong all these years. I thought that because a splice
    must occur at a well-defined gap between the frames, it is *defined* to
    be a safe zone, between one pass of the heads and the next.

    I'm trying to remember where I read that spliced tapes must never be
    bulk erased because it destroys the control track "electronic sprocket
    holes" and therefore risks moving a splice to a random point where a
    head will almost certainly collide with it. But you're saying that a
    collision occurs even with the pulses on the control track undisturbed.
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.net to uk.tech.broadcast on Thu Jan 22 01:25:48 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 21/01/2026 16:31, Mark Carver wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 14:58, NY wrote:
    So did head-switching of Quad occur *within* a line, rather than in
    the line-flyback period between lines? Or is it a delayed effect which
    is manifested n microseconds after head switching?

    I think Quad (and the other helical scan VT formats) were largely line
    rate agnostic, so I don't think the head switch was necessarily during horizontal blanking ?

    Ah, I knew that there were differences between PAL and NTSC Quad
    machines, and I thought that these were because of different line rates
    as well as different frame rates, and that in both cases the timing of
    the head switching was carefully designed to occur during the flyback /
    sync pulse period, at a time when any dropout glitch between heads (even
    if their gains were perfectly matched) was invisible. I'm trying to
    imagine how you can switch between one head and another during the
    visible part of the line in such a way that any discontinuity at the
    switching point is not visible.

    On saturated, flat field chroma, notably a big area of uniform coloured background, you would sometimes see 'head banding' where one or more
    heads was not equalised properly (or the signal had not been uniformly recorded by all four heads)

    Yes, but I always thought that any banding was between one complete line
    and another. Seems not and that you could get a line which was partly
    played back one head and partly by another.


    Talking of switching video signals, I understand that vision mixing
    desks at one time had mechanical switches which operated immediately
    that the button was pressed, rather than waiting until the frame sync
    period when any contact bounce would not be visible. I know on old TV programmes such as the 1962 episodes of Z Cars there are some very dodgy looking switches from one camera to another, with one frame being made
    up of part of one camera's picture and part of another's (*), suggesting
    that the switch occurred mid-frame. Or was the mixed frame just an
    artifact of the kinescope recording of live TV onto film?

    (*) Yeah, OK, I stepped through frame by frame near the edit point.
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Roderick Stewart@rjfs@escapetime.myzen.co.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Thu Jan 22 08:21:23 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On Wed, 21 Jan 2026 16:31:32 +0000, Mark Carver <mark@invalid.com>
    wrote:

    I think Quad (and the other helical scan VT formats) were largely line
    rate agnostic, so I don't think the head switch was necessarily during >horizontal blanking ?

    Head switching was certainly supposed to be within blanking. The
    geometry was such that each head recorded slightly more than was
    necessary to cover the entire signal, so that they could be switched
    during during line blanking in the brief overlap while the same signal
    was available from two of the heads.

    Each head would thus contribute a horizontal band of a whole number of
    lines, either fifteen or sixteen in a sequence that averaged out at
    15.625 lines for the 625 line system and (I think) 15.750 for the 525
    line system. I can't remember what the numbers were for 405, as I
    joined after they'd stopped using it so it wasn't invluded in any of
    my training courses.

    Rod.
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Mark Carver@mark@invalid.com to uk.tech.broadcast on Thu Jan 22 09:01:34 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 22/01/2026 01:07, NY wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 16:24, Mark Carver wrote:
    On 21/01/2026 15:08, NY wrote:
    I read somewhere that all cut-and-splice tapes were marked very
    prominently "Not to be bulk-erased" because doing so would erase the
    electronic "sprocket holes" on the control track so there would be a
    risk of the spinning heads colliding with a splice point and clogging
    the head with oxide, whereas the existing control pulses would sync
    the heads so the splice was always between head-passes. And if you
    started the tape at the beginning and recorded something over the
    top, the VTR would still use the existing control pulses and not
    record new ones in different places.

    I don't think so. A mechanical splice in a tape was the equivalent of
    hitting the heads with a hammer when they rode over it, control track
    or not. Playing physically edited tapes would shorten the head life.
    It was (as ever) a cost/benefit thing, and was accepted that the
    operational advantages of physical editing was worth the cost of
    replacing the heads.

    Seems I've been wrong all these years. I thought that because a splice
    must occur at a well-defined gap between the frames, it is *defined* to
    be a safe zone, between one pass of the heads and the next.

    I'm trying to remember where I read that spliced tapes must never be
    bulk erased because it destroys the control track "electronic sprocket holes" and therefore risks moving a splice to a random point where a
    head will almost certainly collide with it. But you're saying that a collision occurs even with the pulses on the control track undisturbed.

    Well, there might be truth in what you say, and it does make logical
    sense. I'll ask someone who was involved with Quad VTRs when I see him next.

    However, I'm pretty sure that physically edited Quad tapes, were never
    reused ?
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.net to uk.tech.broadcast on Thu Jan 22 10:59:05 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 22/01/2026 08:21, Roderick Stewart wrote:
    Each head would thus contribute a horizontal band of a whole number of
    lines, either fifteen or sixteen in a sequence that averaged out at
    15.625 lines for the 625 line system and (I think) 15.750 for the 525
    line system. I can't remember what the numbers were for 405, as I
    joined after they'd stopped using it so it wasn't invluded in any of
    my training courses.

    I wasn't sure whether Quads ran at a different head rotational rate for 405-line TV, 405/625 times the rate for 625-line TV.

    I can imagine helical scan formats, which record a whole field (or is it frame) on a single diagonal track, will be line-rate agnostic, but I
    would have though that Quad, which records only part of a field per
    track may well have a rotational speed which depends on line rate as
    well as frame rate.

    I've heard it said that VHS can record either 405 or 625 line without
    any modification or change in drum speed - always assuming that you can
    find a source of 405 line and a TV to play it back on. I imagine there
    was a small window of time when 405 was still being broadcast and VHS
    had become available, though whether there were any VHF tuners to
    produce a baseband signal is another matter.

    And later VHS machines can play back 525/30 VHS tapes: I brought back
    some tapes from my sister who was living in the US at the time and I
    could heard the hum of the drum change pitch and "hunt" a bit until it locked-on... and a loud clonk from relay in my CRT TV as it switched to 525/30. Playback was B&W, I think, which suggests that NTSC signals were recorded differently to PAL rather than the colour being recorded in an identical format for both formats; also the TV displayed the picture as
    a letterbox rather than stretching the picture to the same height even
    though there were fewer lines - but that was a TV rather than VCR issue.

    I discovered something by accident about VHS: if you turn the tape
    upside down, the picture is upside down. Somehow the VCR manages to sync
    even though the sync pulses are now occurring at the other end of the
    line. I discovered this when a tape got mangled and I spliced the
    remaining good tape and though "what happens if I turn the tape over?" -
    as you do... ;-)
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From J. P. Gilliver@G6JPG@255soft.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Thu Jan 22 19:47:39 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 2026/1/22 10:59:5, NY wrote:
    []
    I've heard it said that VHS can record either 405 or 625 line without
    any modification or change in drum speed - always assuming that you can find a source of 405 line and a TV to play it back on. I imagine there > was a small window of time when 405 was still being broadcast and VHS
    had become available, though whether there were any VHF tuners to
    produce a baseband signal is another matter.
    It certainly could. I remember - many decades ago - an exhibition in the Science Museum where they had some _really_ old 405 sets (including e.
    g. one with a tiny screen where the audio was fed out to put through
    your radiogram), and they were being fed from an old (piano-key type)
    home VCR (I _assume_ it was VHS), not a standards-converter. There was
    an old boffin-type chap keeping them all going, who was quite happy to
    chat to me; I've thought since that it was probably Gerry the museum,
    though I didn't know him then, but he had the same affect. (Might even
    have been before he set up the museum, and was still operating as a TV repairman type of person; it was a _really_ long time ago. Anyone else
    remember seeing that exhibition?)
    The drum speed would be identical, so no problem there. The more modern machines that (I think) had a delay line to duplicate the one above when
    there was a dropout (you can recognise material from those because
    dropouts appear with a lot of vertical(ish) smear, as that circuitry
    duplicates several lines); however, I think the old one used for that exhibition wouldn't have had that. (Or, it had been disabled or given a different delay.)

    And later VHS machines can play back 525/30 VHS tapes: I brought back
    some tapes from my sister who was living in the US at the time and I
    could heard the hum of the drum change pitch and "hunt" a bit until it > locked-on... and a loud clonk from relay in my CRT TV as it switched to
    525/30. Playback was B&W, I think, which suggests that NTSC signals were recorded differently to PAL rather than the colour being recorded in an identical format for both formats; also the TV displayed the picture as
    a letterbox rather than stretching the picture to the same height even > though there were fewer lines - but that was a TV rather than VCR issue.
    Yes. You missed the presence of an (external) height control!

    I discovered something by accident about VHS: if you turn the tape
    upside down, the picture is upside down. Somehow the VCR manages to sync even though the sync pulses are now occurring at the other end of the
    line. I discovered this when a tape got mangled and I spliced the
    remaining good tape and though "what happens if I turn the tape over?" -
    as you do... ;-)

    I had the same thought when I had my Philips reel-to-reel machines, so
    tried it: deafening buzz from the audio as it was getting the sync
    pulses instead, and jumpy picture - but yes, upside down. (On that
    format I'm pretty sure the sync. pulses and the audio were on opposite
    sides of the helical part ... oh, you're talking about the _line_ sync.
    pulses; I can't see those being a problem, just differing front and back
    porch durations. Or do you mean the colour worked too? I wouldn't have
    expected _that_, the bursts being as you said at the wrong end.)
    --
    J. P. Gilliver. UMRA: 1960/<1985 MB++G()ALIS-Ch++(p)Ar++T+H+Sh0!:`)DNAf
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.net to uk.tech.broadcast on Thu Jan 22 21:37:04 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 22/01/2026 19:47, J. P. Gilliver wrote:
    I discovered something by accident about VHS: if you turn the tape
    upside down, the picture is upside down. Somehow the VCR manages to sync
    even though the sync pulses are now occurring at the other end of the
    line. I discovered this when a tape got mangled and I spliced the
    remaining good tape and though "what happens if I turn the tape over?" -
    as you do... ;-)

    I had the same thought when I had my Philips reel-to-reel machines, so
    tried it: deafening buzz from the audio as it was getting the sync
    pulses instead, and jumpy picture - but yes, upside down. (On that
    format I'm pretty sure the sync. pulses and the audio were on opposite
    sides of the helical part ... oh, you're talking about the _line_ sync. pulses; I can't see those being a problem, just differing front and back porch durations. Or do you mean the colour worked too? I wouldn't have expected _that_, the bursts being as you said at the wrong end.)

    I think the colour decoder did its best to try and produce colour from *somewhere* but it decoded noise and had random colours out of nowhere!

    I'm not sure how VHS stored colour but I know it was completely separate
    from the luminance, whereas broadcast formats mostly store the original
    PAL waveform with colour burst, alternating phase of B-Y, etc.

    So it is possible that colour could have been recovered more easily from
    VHS that was played line-backwards than it could have been done from
    broadcast helical formats where the colour burst was in completely the
    wrong place to be fed through to kick the 4.43 MHz oscillator into phase.

    I wonder... if you had very sensitive heads, could you play the tape
    from the opposite (non-oxide) side? My head hurts trying to work out how
    it would affect the geometry of the picture... if at all. Don't think
    I'll bother trying it.


    Yes, the control tracks were picked up as a horrendous 25 Hz buzz. I'm surprised the VCR could follow the tracks with only an audio track to
    serve as track markers. I wonder what would happen if you played the
    tape normally but blanked off the control head. Because if the tracking
    still worked, you wonder what purpose the control track had. Of course
    the control track did serve one very useful purpose apart from ensuring
    good tracking: it drove the tape counter that used real units of time
    rather than arbitrary "counter units" which were a different size at the beginning and end of the tape since the mechanical counter was driven
    off the take-up spool.

    I always wondered how the "tape library" feature of later VHS machines
    worked - the thing which displayed a list of programmes that were
    recorded on the tape. I realise that the text for each tape was stored
    in non-volatile memory and not on the tape, but there must have been a
    unique ID stored repeatedly throughout the tape so wherever the tape was
    when you inserted it, the player could say "ah, this is tape XYZ, so
    retrieve the library for that tape from the memory", and also it had to replicate any tape ID that it found onto any new recordings that you
    made on the tape, so a new recording could overwrite the title entry for
    the programme that you were recording on top of.

    VHS machines started out as really clunky devices with mechanical
    counters, and which needed to stop the tape and thread/unthread the tape
    when changing between REW/FF and Play (tedious!!!!) (*). By the end,
    they were able to play at 1/2 or 1/3 original speed with not much loss
    of quality, with counters that used real HH:MM:SS, able to switch
    between REW/FF, fast shuttle play and normal speed play in an instant,
    and could record CD-quality sound (when fed from NICAM), recording
    subtitles, and could give pretty good still-frame pictures.
    Paradoxically, still-frame was better quality (in colour and with less
    noise and jitter) on EP (1/3 speed) than on LP (1/2 speed).


    (*) My first experience with a VHS machine was when I was a prefect in
    the 6th form in 1980 and my duties (along with a couple of like-minded friends) were in the school's audio-visual room, which knocked spots off having to break up playground fights or keep order in the dinner queue!
    It meant we could play with someone else's expensive toys. And that was
    with top-loading Ferguson VCRs which had to thread/unthread the tape
    when you went from FF to Play, so it made it tedious to find the correct
    place on the tape, with a five-second delay at every change from one
    mode to the other. We had to train the teachers how to use the VCRs, and
    what not to do (eg don't leave the tape on still-frame for too long
    otherwise you cause tape wear). I have very fond memories of
    demonstrating to a young female teacher only a couple of years older
    than me, and telling how to put your fingers on each side of the
    cassette cradle and press down very gently and evenly on both sides with
    your fingertips to stop the cradle jamming. She smiled in a way that no teacher ever should to a sixth-former and said, in best Kenneth Williams voice, "Oooooooooh, Matronnnnnnnnnn" as she looked at me with a shocked expression. We both collapsed in a fit of the giggles. I genuinely
    hadn't realised that what I was saying might have sounded a bit suggestive.
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From J. P. Gilliver@G6JPG@255soft.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Fri Jan 23 01:48:45 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 2026/1/22 21:37:4, NY wrote:
    On 22/01/2026 19:47, J. P. Gilliver wrote:
    I discovered something by accident about VHS: if you turn the tape
    upside down, the picture is upside down. Somehow the VCR manages to sync >>> even though the sync pulses are now occurring at the other end of the
    line. I discovered this when a tape got mangled and I spliced the
    remaining good tape and though "what happens if I turn the tape over?" - >>> as you do... ;-)

    I had the same thought when I had my Philips reel-to-reel machines, so
    tried it: deafening buzz from the audio as it was getting the sync
    pulses instead, and jumpy picture - but yes, upside down. (On that
    format I'm pretty sure the sync. pulses and the audio were on opposite
    sides of the helical part ... oh, you're talking about the _line_ sync.
    pulses; I can't see those being a problem, just differing front and back
    porch durations. Or do you mean the colour worked too? I wouldn't have
    expected _that_, the bursts being as you said at the wrong end.)

    I think the colour decoder did its best to try and produce colour from *somewhere* but it decoded noise and had random colours out of nowhere!

    (My Philips reel-to-reel wasn't colour.)

    I'm not sure how VHS stored colour but I know it was completely separate from the luminance, whereas broadcast formats mostly store the original
    PAL waveform with colour burst, alternating phase of B-Y, etc.

    I think they mixed the colour subcarrier down to something quite low.


    So it is possible that colour could have been recovered more easily from
    VHS that was played line-backwards than it could have been done from broadcast helical formats where the colour burst was in completely the
    wrong place to be fed through to kick the 4.43 MHz oscillator into phase.

    I wonder... if you had very sensitive heads, could you play the tape
    from the opposite (non-oxide) side? My head hurts trying to work out how
    it would affect the geometry of the picture... if at all. Don't think
    I'll bother trying it.

    I think it's be reading across tracks: \\\\ instead of ////, and thus
    probably not get anything usable at all.


    Yes, the control tracks were picked up as a horrendous 25 Hz buzz. I'm surprised the VCR could follow the tracks with only an audio track to
    serve as track markers. I wonder what would happen if you played the
    tape normally but blanked off the control head. Because if the tracking still worked, you wonder what purpose the control track had. Of course

    I think a base reference, which the tracking then fine-tuned.
    []

    VHS machines started out as really clunky devices with mechanical
    counters, and which needed to stop the tape and thread/unthread the tape when changing between REW/FF and Play (tedious!!!!) (*). By the end,
    they were able to play at 1/2 or 1/3 original speed with not much loss
    of quality, with counters that used real HH:MM:SS, able to switch
    between REW/FF, fast shuttle play and normal speed play in an instant,
    and could record CD-quality sound (when fed from NICAM), recording subtitles, and could give pretty good still-frame pictures.
    Paradoxically, still-frame was better quality (in colour and with less
    noise and jitter) on EP (1/3 speed) than on LP (1/2 speed).

    Did EP reach the UK? I always thought it was a US-only thing.

    I had a V2000, with the dynamic track following (the heads were mounted
    on piezo actuators!); the best one I had could go from fast backwards
    play to fast forwards (|u-7 to |u+9, IIRR), whiich it did _gradually_,
    passing through still - without losing a beat - no noise bars or
    anything. I was very sad when that format died.



    (*) My first experience with a VHS machine was when I was a prefect in
    the 6th form in 1980 and my duties (along with a couple of like-minded friends) were in the school's audio-visual room, which knocked spots off having to break up playground fights or keep order in the dinner queue!

    :-)

    It meant we could play with someone else's expensive toys. And that was
    with top-loading Ferguson VCRs which had to thread/unthread the tape

    Yes, I think the one I saw in that exhibition in the science museum
    (possibly with Gerry looking after it) that had the 405-line material on
    it, was of that vintage.

    when you went from FF to Play, so it made it tedious to find the correct place on the tape, with a five-second delay at every change from one
    mode to the other. We had to train the teachers how to use the VCRs, and what not to do (eg don't leave the tape on still-frame for too long otherwise you cause tape wear). I have very fond memories of

    Yes, eventually they added a timeout, which unlaced itself after you'd
    left it on still for a while.

    demonstrating to a young female teacher only a couple of years older
    than me, and telling how to put your fingers on each side of the
    cassette cradle and press down very gently and evenly on both sides with your fingertips to stop the cradle jamming. She smiled in a way that no teacher ever should to a sixth-former and said, in best Kenneth Williams voice, "Oooooooooh, Matronnnnnnnnnn" as she looked at me with a shocked expression. We both collapsed in a fit of the giggles. I genuinely
    hadn't realised that what I was saying might have sounded a bit suggestive.

    :-) [Ah, happy days.]
    --
    J. P. Gilliver. UMRA: 1960/<1985 MB++G()ALIS-Ch++(p)Ar++T+H+Sh0!:`)DNAf

    "Where's Piglet?" asked Pooh, as he munched a pork pie.
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Mark Carver@mark@invalid.com to uk.tech.broadcast on Fri Jan 23 10:02:08 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 22/01/2026 21:37, NY wrote:

    I'm not sure how VHS stored colour but I know it was completely separate from the luminance, whereas broadcast formats mostly store the original
    PAL waveform with colour burst, alternating phase of B-Y, etc.

    Cassette formats, VHS, Betamax, U Matic etc all converted the baseband
    4.43 or 3.58 Colour signal down to a much lower frequency (600 to 700
    kHz) to put it on tape.

    Google 'Colour Under'

    As you say, Quad, and '1 Inch' formats keep the colour within the
    original baseband.

    BetaCam (and Panasonic's MII) recorded totally separate luma (Y) and
    chroma (R-Y/B-Y) tracks
    --- Synchronet 3.21a-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From Paul Ratcliffe@abuse@orac12.clara34.co56.uk78 to uk.tech.broadcast on Sun Jan 25 20:47:15 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On Wed, 21 Jan 2026 15:08:51 +0000, NY <me@privacy.net> wrote:


    Is videotape ever used in TV production these days?

    No.

    Or is everything recorded digitally?

    Yes.

    Is computer-type tape used for archiving digital recordings,

    Yes.

    or are hard drives (or optical discs similar to DVDs) used
    as the archive medium?

    Maybe hard drives for certain stuff.
    What are "optical discs similar to DVDs"?

    (As always, there will be exceptions, but the above is generally where
    things are today.)
    --- Synchronet 3.21b-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.net to uk.tech.broadcast on Sun Jan 25 21:42:00 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 25/01/2026 20:47, Paul Ratcliffe wrote:
    or are hard drives (or optical discs similar to DVDs) used
    as the archive medium?

    What are "optical discs similar to DVDs"?
    I was meaning DVD-type recording (burning 1s and 0s in a metallic layer
    or a dye layer within a plastic disc) but not necessarily the standard
    12 cm diameter and not necessarily DVD file format. I was covering all
    my bases!

    I imagine any recording medium that is used for archiving is losslessly
    copied on new disc every so often to guard against degradation of the
    magnetic or optical disc.
    --- Synchronet 3.21b-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From NY@me@privacy.invalid to uk.tech.broadcast on Mon Jan 26 18:49:32 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    "J. P. Gilliver" <G6JPG@255soft.uk> wrote in message news:10kuk1t$30k2f$5@dont-email.me...
    I wonder... if you had very sensitive heads, could you play the tape
    from the opposite (non-oxide) side? My head hurts trying to work out how
    it would affect the geometry of the picture... if at all. Don't think
    I'll bother trying it.

    I think it's be reading across tracks: \\\\ instead of ////, and thus probably not get anything usable at all.

    Duh. Yes I think you may be right!


    Did EP reach the UK? I always thought it was a US-only thing.

    It certainly did. I have two (*) late-model Panasonic VCRs which do EP (1/3
    SP speed) and so give a maximum recording time of 15 hours on an E300
    (5-hour) cassette. Useful for recording lots of things while I was away on holiday.

    demonstrating to a young female teacher only a couple of years older
    than me, and telling how to put your fingers on each side of the
    cassette cradle and press down very gently and evenly on both sides with
    your fingertips to stop the cradle jamming. She smiled in a way that no
    teacher ever should to a sixth-former and said, in best Kenneth Williams
    voice, "Oooooooooh, Matronnnnnnnnnn" as she looked at me with a shocked
    expression. We both collapsed in a fit of the giggles. I genuinely
    hadn't realised that what I was saying might have sounded a bit
    suggestive.

    :-) [Ah, happy days.]

    Very happy days. I wonder if she realised that she made a certain 6th former have some very happy dreams ;-)


    (*) I bought one. After a good few years of flawless service it suddenly developed a problem with its tape-transport control logic which made it shuttle the tape at fast-play (it tracked fine and produced aa good a
    picture as fast-shuttle gives you) but it would not respond to any stop/rew/ff/play buttons on the remote or on the front panel. I left it shuttling the tape to the end and then managed to retrieve the tape once I'd turned the power off. The problem was 100% reproducible (with a tape that I didn't care about), and no amount of leaving the VCR powered-off cleared it.
    I took the VCR to a local TV-repair shop who also reproduced the fault and pronounced Dead on Arrival and offered me two choices: pay a nominal cost
    and keep the VCR, or let the shop keep the VCR for spares and pay nothing.
    I'm glad I chose the first because lo-and-behold, a few weeks later when I tried it, it; worked perfectly and has done ever since. However in the meantime I'd gone out and bought another similar model. I used both VCRs (I now had the ability to record overlapping programmes) for another five years or so until I started using Windows Media Centre (Win XP) and a DVB tuner,
    and then migrated to Raspberry Pi and dual DVB-T2 and one DVB-S2 tuners. I last used one of the VCRs (not sure whether it was the "broken" one or its replacement) a few years ago to copy some old tapes to MPEG and hence to
    DVD.

    --- Synchronet 3.21b-Linux NewsLink 1.2
  • From J. P. Gilliver@G6JPG@255soft.uk to uk.tech.broadcast on Mon Jan 26 19:10:10 2026
    From Newsgroup: uk.tech.broadcast

    On 2026/1/26 18:49:32, NY wrote:
    "J. P. Gilliver" <G6JPG@255soft.uk> wrote in message news:10kuk1t$30k2f$5@dont-email.me...

    []

    Did EP reach the UK? I always thought it was a US-only thing.

    It certainly did. I have two (*) late-model Panasonic VCRs which do EP (1/3 SP speed) and so give a maximum recording time of 15 hours on an E300 (5-hour) cassette. Useful for recording lots of things while I was away on holiday.

    Ah. I don't think I ever got into it for VHS. I think I did have an LP
    V2000 though, which would have been 8 hours a side (I don't think there
    were ever more than VCC240; obviously that would have given 16 hours,
    but you'd need to turn over half way through), and I fear that format
    died before EP. (Maybe something about it precluded it.)
    []
    expression. We both collapsed in a fit of the giggles. I genuinely
    hadn't realised that what I was saying might have sounded a bit
    suggestive.

    :-) [Ah, happy days.]

    Very happy days. I wonder if she realised that she made a certain 6th former have some very happy dreams ;-)

    Envy. I never had such a teacher! (Then or since!)

    []

    I took the VCR to a local TV-repair shop who also reproduced the fault and pronounced Dead on Arrival and offered me two choices: pay a nominal cost and keep the VCR, or let the shop keep the VCR for spares and pay nothing.

    I remember that sort of alternative!

    I'm glad I chose the first because lo-and-behold, a few weeks later when I tried it, it; worked perfectly and has done ever since. However in the meantime I'd gone out and bought another similar model. I used both VCRs (I now had the ability to record overlapping programmes) for another five years or so until I started using Windows Media Centre (Win XP) and a DVB tuner, and then migrated to Raspberry Pi and dual DVB-T2 and one DVB-S2 tuners. I last used one of the VCRs (not sure whether it was the "broken" one or its replacement) a few years ago to copy some old tapes to MPEG and hence to DVD.

    I will have to do that _some_time. I have a capture device, and _some_
    VHS machines, but very much a tuit shortage (to the extent that I've
    never got round to even taking the capture device out of its box). I
    don't have _too_ many tapes to do if I ever start. (Though the V2000
    ones will never get done - I no longer have anything to play them, and
    working machines are probably expensive by now, if findable). I _have_
    managed to convert all my standard and super 8mm films - sadly, the
    colours on those had faded more than I was expecting. (I have a Winait -
    same as sold under the name Wolverine and some others).
    --
    J. P. Gilliver. UMRA: 1960/<1985 MB++G()ALIS-Ch++(p)Ar++T+H+Sh0!:`)DNAf

    "When the people fear the government there is tyranny,
    when the government fears the people there is liberty."
    - Thomas Jefferson
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