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<div>The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries; see the article history of scientific method for additional detail.) It involves careful observation, applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses, via induction, based on such observations; the testability of hypotheses, experimental and the measurement-based statistical testing of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement (or elimination) of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings. These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises.[1][2][3]</div><div></div><div></div><div>Although procedures vary from one field of inquiry to another, the underlying process is frequently the same from one field to another. The process in the scientific method involves making conjectures (hypothetical explanations), deriving predictions from the hypotheses as logical consequences, and then carrying out experiments or empirical observations based on those predictions.[a][4] A hypothesis is a conjecture, based on knowledge obtained while seeking answers to the question. The hypothesis might be very specific, or it might be broad. Scientists then test hypotheses by conducting experiments or studies. A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, implying that it is possible to identify a possible outcome of an experiment or observation that conflicts with predictions deduced from the hypothesis; otherwise, the hypothesis cannot be meaningfully tested.[5]</div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div>download element of scientific thought pdf</div><div></div><div>Download Zip: https://t.co/RqR6EzL1z7 </div><div></div><div></div><div>The term "scientific method" emerged in the 19th century, when a significant institutional development of science was taking place and terminologies establishing clear boundaries between science and non-science, such as "scientist" and "pseudoscience", appeared.[16] Throughout the 1830s and 1850s, at which time Baconianism was popular, naturalists like William Whewell, John Herschel, John Stuart Mill engaged in debates over "induction" and "facts" and were focused on how to generate knowledge.[16] In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, a debate over realism vs. antirealism was conducted as powerful scientific theories extended beyond the realm of the observable.[17]</div><div></div><div></div><div>The term "scientific method" came into popular use in the twentieth century; Dewey's 1910 book, How We Think, inspired popular guidelines,[18] popping up in dictionaries and science textbooks, although there was little consensus over its meaning.[16] Although there was growth through the middle of the twentieth century, by the 1960s and 1970s numerous influential philosophers of science such as Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend had questioned the universality of the "scientific method" and in doing so largely replaced the notion of science as a homogeneous and universal method with that of it being a heterogeneous and local practice.[16] In particular, Paul Feyerabend, in the 1975 first edition of his book Against Method, argued against there being any universal rules of science;[17] Popper 1963,[19] Gauch 2003,[7] and Tow 2010[20] disagree with Feyerabend's claim; problem solvers, and researchers are to be prudent with their resources during their inquiry.[B][c]</div><div></div><div></div><div>Later stances include physicist Lee Smolin's 2013 essay "There Is No Scientific Method",[26] in which he espouses two ethical principles,[e] and historian of science Daniel Thurs' chapter in the 2015 book Newton's Apple and Other Myths about Science, which concluded that the scientific method is a myth or, at best, an idealization.[27] As myths are beliefs,[28] they are subject to the narrative fallacy as Taleb points out.[29] Philosophers Robert Nola and Howard Sankey, in their 2007 book Theories of Scientific Method, said that debates over scientific method continue, and argued that Feyerabend, despite the title of Against Method, accepted certain rules of method and attempted to justify those rules with a meta methodology.[30] Staddon (2017) argues it is a mistake to try following rules in the absence of an algorithmic scientific method; in that case, "science is best understood through examples".[f] But algorithmic methods, such as disproof of existing theory by experiment have been used since Alhacen (1027) Book of Optics,[b] and Galileo (1638) Two New Sciences,[32] and The Assayer[33] still stand as scientific method. They contradict Feyerabend's stance. [C][D]</div><div></div><div></div><div>The ubiquitous element in the scientific method is empiricism. This is in opposition to stringent forms of rationalism: the scientific method embodies the position that reason alone cannot solve a particular scientific problem. A strong formulation of the scientific method is not always aligned with a form of empiricism in which the empirical data is put forward in the form of experience or other abstracted forms of knowledge; in current scientific practice, however, the use of scientific modelling and reliance on abstract typologies and theories is normally accepted. The scientific method counters claims that revelation, political or religious dogma, appeals to tradition, commonly held beliefs, common sense, or currently held theories pose the only possible means of demonstrating truth.[37][21][20]</div><div></div><div></div><div>Different early expressions of empiricism and the scientific method can be found throughout history, for instance with the ancient Stoics, Epicurus,[38] Alhazen,[E] Avicenna, Al-Biruni,[39][40] Roger Bacon, and William of Ockham. From the 16th century onwards, experiments were advocated by Francis Bacon, and performed by Giambattista della Porta,[41] Johannes Kepler,[42][i] and Galileo Galilei.[j] There was particular development aided by theoretical works by Francisco Sanches,[43] John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.</div><div></div><div></div><div>A sea voyage from America to Europe afforded C. S. Peirce the distance to clarify his ideas,[F] gradually resulting in the hypothetico-deductive model.[44] Formulated in the 20th century, the model has undergone significant revision since first proposed (for a more formal discussion, see Elements of the scientific method).</div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div></div><div>The scientific method is the process by which science is carried out.[45] As in other areas of inquiry, science (through the scientific method) can build on previous knowledge and develop a more sophisticated understanding of its topics of study over time.[k][47][48][49][50][51][52] This model can be seen to underlie the scientific revolution.[53]</div><div></div><div></div><div>The question can refer to the explanation of a specific observation,[A] as in "Why is the sky blue?" but can also be open-ended, as in "How can I design a drug to cure this particular disease?" This stage frequently involves finding and evaluating evidence from previous experiments, personal scientific observations or assertions, as well as the work of other scientists. If the answer is already known, a different question that builds on the evidence can be posed. When applying the scientific method to research, determining a good question can be very difficult and it will affect the outcome of the investigation.[54]</div><div></div><div></div><div>The process of peer review involves evaluation of the experiment by experts, who typically give their opinions anonymously. Some journals request that the experimenter provide lists of possible peer reviewers, especially if the field is highly specialized. Peer review does not certify the correctness of the results, only that, in the opinion of the reviewer, the experiments themselves were sound (based on the description supplied by the experimenter). If the work passes peer review, which occasionally may require new experiments requested by the reviewers, it will be published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal. The specific journal that publishes the results indicates the perceived quality of the work.[r]</div><div></div><div></div><div>There are different ways of outlining the basic method used for scientific inquiry. The scientific community and philosophers of science generally agree on the following classification of method components. These methodological elements and organization of procedures tend to be more characteristic of experimental sciences than social sciences. Nonetheless, the cycle of formulating hypotheses, testing and analyzing the results, and formulating new hypotheses, will resemble the cycle described below.</div><div></div><div></div><div>The scientific method is an iterative, cyclical process through which information is continually revised.[79][80] It is generally recognized to develop advances in knowledge through the following elements, in varying combinations or contributions:[48][51]</div><div></div><div></div><div>Each element of the scientific method is subject to peer review for possible mistakes. These activities do not describe all that scientists do but apply mostly to experimental sciences (e.g., physics, chemistry, biology, and psychology). The elements above are often taught in the educational system as "the scientific method".[A]</div><div></div><div></div><div>While this schema outlines a typical hypothesis/testing method,[83] many philosophers, historians, and sociologists of science, including Paul Feyerabend,[t] claim that such descriptions of scientific method have little relation to the ways that science is actually practiced.</div><div></div><div></div><div>The scientific method depends upon increasingly sophisticated characterizations of the subjects of investigation. (The subjects can also be called unsolved problems or the unknowns.)[A] For example, Benjamin Franklin conjectured, correctly, that St. Elmo's fire was electrical in nature, but it has taken a long series of experiments and theoretical changes to establish this. While seeking the pertinent properties of the subjects, careful thought may also entail some definitions and observations; the observations often demand careful measurements and/or counting.</div><div></div><div></div><div>The systematic, careful collection of measurements or counts of relevant quantities is often the critical difference between pseudo-sciences, such as alchemy, and science, such as chemistry or biology. Scientific measurements are usually tabulated, graphed, or mapped, and statistical manipulations, such as correlation and regression, performed on them. The measurements might be made in a controlled setting, such as a laboratory, or made on more or less inaccessible or unmanipulatable objects such as stars or human populations. The measurements often require specialized scientific instruments such as thermometers, spectroscopes, particle accelerators, or voltmeters, and the progress of a scientific field is usually intimately tied to their invention and improvement.</div><div></div><div> df19127ead</div>
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